Examining the Influence of Warm-Up Static and Dynamic Stretching, as well as Post-Activation Potentiation Effects, on the Acute Enhancement of Gymnastic Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

The primary objective of this systematic review with meta-analysis is to methodically discern and compare the impact of diverse warm-up strategies, including both static and dynamic stretching, as well as post-activation potentiation techniques, on the immediate performance of gymnasts. Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this paper evaluated studies that examined the gymnasts' performance after different warm-up strategies namely stretching (static [SS] or dynamic), vibration platforms (VP) or post-activation, in comparison to control conditions (e.g., mixed warm-up routines; no warm-up). The principal outcomes were centered on technical performance metrics (e.g., split, gymnastic jumps) and physical performance metrics (e.g., squat jump, countermovement jump, drop jump, balance, range of motion). Methodological assessments of the included studies were conducted using the Downs and Black Checklist. From the initial search across PubMed, Scopus, and the Web of Science databases, a total of 591 titles were retrieved, and 19 articles were ultimately incorporated in the analysis. The results revealed a non-significant differences (p > 0.05) between the SS condition and control conditions in squat jump performance, countermovement jump and gymnastic technical performance (e.g., split; split jump). Despite the difference in warm-up strategies and outcomes analyzed, the results suggest that there is no significant impairment of lower-limb power after SS. Additionally, technical elements dependent on flexibility appear to be enhanced by SS. Conversely, dynamic stretching and VP seem to be more effective for augmenting power-related and dynamic performance in gymnasts.

A warm-up strategy with or without voluntary contraction on athletic performance, lower-leg temperature, and blood lactate concentration.

It is unclear whether temperature-related warm-up effects can be accomplished by passive warm-up (e.g., by external heat). Therefore, this study compared the effects of two different warm-up protocols with and without voluntary contraction on subsequent sprinting and jumping performance. Eighteen healthy male collegiate students (23.3 ± 2.4 years, 173.8 ± 7.2 cm, 70.5 ± 9.3 kg) randomly experienced 10 min of active (jogging on a treadmill; belt speed: 9.0 km/h at a 1% incline) and passive warm-up (lying down in the warm-up chamber; inner ambient temperature set at 35°C) protocols, followed by ten sets of intermittent exercises in two separate sessions. Athletic performance, lower-leg muscle temperature, and blood lactate concentration were statistically compared using analysis of variance with Tukey-Kramer post-hoc comparisons. Cohen's d effect sizes (ES) were also calculated. There was no warm-up protocol effect over time on 20 m sprint times (condition × time: F9,323 = 1.26, p = 0.25). Maximal vertical jump heights were different (condition × time: F9,323 = 2.0, p = 0.04) such that subjects who performed the active warm-up protocol jumped higher (51.4 cm) than those who did the passive warm-up (49.2 cm, p = 0.04). There was a warm-up protocol effect over time on lower-leg muscle temperature (condition × time: F12,425 = 13.99, p<0.0001) in that there was a 5.5% and 5.8% increase after active (32.8 to 34.6°C, ES = 2.91) and passive (32.9 to 34.9°C, ES = 3.28) warm-up protocols, respectively. Blood lactate concentration was different (condition × time: F2,85 = 3.61, p = 0.03) since the values at the post-warm-up measurements were different between warm-up conditions (active: 4.1 mmol/L; passive: 1.5 mmol/L, p = 0.004, ES = 1.69). Subsequent sprint and jump performance did not differ between the duration- and muscle temperature-matched active and passive warm-up protocols. Non-thermal effects from the warm-up activity may be minimal for sprinting and jumping performance in recreationally active males.

Postsubmaximal Isometric Full Squat Jump Potentiation in Trained Men.

ABSTRACT: Kozlenia, D, and Domaradzki, J. Postsubmaximal isometric full squat jump potentiation in trained men. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): 459-464, 2024-This study investigated the effects of postsubmaximal isometric full squats on jump height (JH). The study included 45 men aged 20-27 years with at least 6 years of resistance training experience that had been continuous for at least 2 years and a minimum relative strength of 120% of body mass in the full-back squat. They were randomly divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). After a standard warm-up, subjects performed a countermovement jump (CMJ) to ascertain a baseline value. A conditioning activity (CA) introduced in the EG involved three 4-second sets of a high bar isometric full-back squat at 70% repetition maximum, with a 1-minute break. Five CMJs were performed in the following 9 minutes. Statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. A 2-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) (group-time), with baseline CMJ as a covariable, revealed statistically significant differences between groups ( p < 0.0001). The Bonferroni post hoc tests revealed higher results in the EG at the third, fifth, seventh, and ninth minutes ( p < 0.05). A 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that time was statistically significant within groups ( p < 0.0001). The post hoc tests indicated JH improvement after 3 minutes compared with the baseline, and the trend persisted in the following 6 minutes ( p < 0.05) in the EG. The postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) protocol based on a submaximal isometric full squat enhanced JH in the third minute after CA, which persisted for at least 6 minutes. These results indicate a requirement to evoke performance enhancement in response to an isometric CA.

Youth Injury Knowledge and Beliefs following Neuromuscular Training Warm-up Implementation in Schools.

Neuromuscular training warm-up programs can reduce injury rates in youth sports, but they often have poor uptake and adherence. Delivering such programs in school physical education classes may provide greater public health benefit, particularly if they promote improved injury knowledge and prevention beliefs amongst students. The purpose of this secondary analysis of a large cluster-randomized controlled trial was to understand how students' (age 11-15 years) knowledge and beliefs change after exposure to an evidence-informed neuromuscular training warm-up program. Six schools delivered the program for a 12-week period in the initial study year (n=566) and two continued to use it in a subsequent "maintenance" year (n=255). Students completed a knowledge and beliefs questionnaire at baseline, 6-week, and 12-week timepoints. Knowledge scores ranged from 7/10 to 8/10 at all timepoints and students generally believed that injuries are preventable. On average, there was less than a one-point change in knowledge between timepoints and there was no change in the median belief scores. There were no meaningful differences between sexes, grades, or previous injury. These findings highlight that knowledge and beliefs are unlikely to change passively through program exposure. More active strategies are needed to improve injury prevention perceptions in this population.

Revisiting the 'Whys' and 'Hows' of the Warm-Up: Are We Asking the Right Questions?

The warm-up is considered beneficial for increasing body temperature, stimulating the neuromuscular system and overall preparing the athletes for the demands of training sessions and competitions. Even when warm-up-derived benefits are slight and transient, they may still benefit preparedness for subsequent efforts. However, sports training and competition performance are highly affected by contextual factors (e.g., how is the opponent acting?), and it is not always clear what should be the preferred warm-up modalities, structure and load for each athlete and context. Further, we propose that the warm-up can also be used as a pedagogical and training moment. The warm-up may serve several different (albeit complementary) goals (e.g., rising body temperature, neuromuscular activation, attentional focus) and be performed under a plethora of different structures, modalities, and loads. The current commentary highlights the warm-up period as an opportunity to teach or improve certain skills or physical capacities, and not only as a preparation for the subsequent efforts. Moreover, the (justified) call for individualized warm-ups would benefit from educating athletes about exploring different warm-up tasks and loads, providing a broad foundation for future individualization of the warm-up and for more active, engaged, and well-informed participation of the athletes in deciding their own warm-up practices.

No Evidence of Postactivation Performance Enhancement on Endurance Exercises: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: Narrative reviews have suggested that postactivation induced by warm-up routines is effective to increase endurance exercise performance in real-world scenarios. However, systematic reviews with meta-analysis rather than narrative ones are required to provide an up-to-date summary of the evidence and provide directions for practical decisions. Therefore, we systematically reviewed peer-reviewed and gray literature to determine the certainty of evidence and the relative effects of postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) in endurance exercises. METHODS: The effects of PAPE on endurance performance were meta-analyzed as a standardized mean difference (SMD) from control conditions within a random-effects model considering polled data and subgroups (PAPE strategies, endurance test modalities, and V̇O 2max -based endurance level). RESULTS: Eligible studies ( n = 35) showed a high risk of bias due to methodological flaws in randomization and blinding procedures. A meta-analysis including 57 comparisons (432 participants) revealed a significant but very small PAPE effect on endurance performance ( Z = 2.49, SMD = 0.15-very small, 95% confidence interval = 0.03 to 0.28) due to exceptional effect sizes reported by two studies (SMD of 2.85 and 2.14). We also observed that neither PAPE strategies nor endurance test modalities or V̇O 2max -based endurance levels influenced the PAPE effects on endurance performance. Meta-regression showed that PAPE effects were correlated neither with the time interval between conditioning routines and endurance exercise nor with endurance exercise duration. We found a very low certainty of evidence that PAPE potentiates endurance performance. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the analyses of bias and certainty of evidence, we found no support to recommend PAPE strategies to improve endurance exercise performance. Significant but very small PAPE effects on endurance performance were due to two exceptional effect sizes.

Effectiveness of warm-up and dynamic balance training in preventing anterior cruciate ligament injuries in college gymnasts: a 3-year prospective study for one team.

BACKGROUND: The effect of trunk stability and dynamic balance warm-up exercises on physical functional improvement remains unelucidated. This study examined whether exercises could prevent anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury and improve trunk muscle activation and dynamic balance in gymnasts. METHODS: This comparison study, involving gymnastics practice sessions, included 31 university gymnasts and was conducted in two periods: 1 year of observation followed by 2 years of intervention. Participants performed a trunk and dynamic balance warm-up exercise program during the intervention. The effect of exercise on the incidence of ACL injury was evaluated. In addition, the paired t-test was used to compare the Y-balance distance and the changes in muscle thickness associated with trunk muscle activation at rest and during plank. RESULTS: ACL injury risk during the intervention was significantly lower, with a relative risk of 0.23 (P=0.02, 95% CI: 0.06-0.88). Changes in muscle thickness with activation of the transversus abdominis (P<0.01, mean difference 4.1, 95% CI: 9.97-28.07, Cohen's d=0.52), internal oblique (P<0.01, mean difference 5.2, 95% CI: 9.72-21.55, Cohen's d=0.65), and external oblique (P<0.01, mean difference 5.5, 95% CI: 20.44-39.09, Cohen's d=0.71) muscles were significantly higher during the intervention. The Y-balance distance was also significantly greater in the posterior medial reach (P<0.01, mean difference 3.3, 95% CI: 1.56-6.26, Cohen's d=0.46) during the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Exercise-based warm-up programs may decrease ACL injuries. It can improve physical functions, such as the rate of change in trunk muscle thickness and the posterior medial distance during Y balance.

Circulating Plasma Oxytocin Level Is Elevated by High-Intensity Interval Exercise in Men.

PURPOSE: We evaluated whether repeated high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) influences plasma oxytocin (OT) concentration in healthy men, and, given that OT is mainly synthesized in the hypothalamus, we assessed the concentration difference between the arterial (OT ART ) versus the internal jugular venous OT concentration (OT IJV ). Additionally, we hypothesized that an increase in cerebral OT release and the circulating concentration would be augmented by repeated HIIE. METHODS: Fourteen healthy men (age = 24 ± 2 yr; mean ± SD) performed two identical bouts of HIIE. These HIIE bouts included a warm-up at 50%-60% maximal workload ( Wmax ) for 5 min followed by four bouts of exercise at 80%-90% Wmax for 4 min interspersed by exercise at 50%-60% Wmax for 3 min. The HIIE bouts were separated by 60 min of rest. OT was evaluated in blood through radial artery and internal jugular vein catheterization. RESULTS: Both HIIE bouts increased both OT ART (median [IQR], from 3.9 [3.4-5.4] to 5.3 [4.4-6.3] ng·mL -1 in the first HIIE, P < 0.01) and OT IJV (from 4.6 [3.4-4.8] to 5.9 [4.3-8.2] ng·mL -1 , P < 0.01), but OT ART-IJV was unaffected (from -0.24 [-1.16 to 1.08] to 0.04 [-0.88 to 0.78] ng·mL -1 , P = 1.00). The increased OT levels were similar in the first and second HIIE bouts (OT ARTP = 0.25, OT IJVP = 0.36). CONCLUSIONS: Despite no change in the cerebral OT release via the internal jugular vein, circulating OT increases during HIIE regardless of the accumulated exercise volume, indicating that OT may play role as one of the exerkines.

The Effects of Low-Load Squat Jump and Maximal Isometric Priming Exercise on Muscular Performance and Perceptual State.

ABSTRACT: Harrison, PW, James, LP, Jenkins, DG, McGuigan, MR, Holmberg, PM, and Kelly, VG. The effects of low-load squat jump and maximal isometric priming exercise on muscular performance and perceptual state. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 1-9, 2024-The aim of this study was to examine responses at 3 and 27 hours after low-load jump squat (LL) and maximal isometric half-squat (ISO) priming stimuli. Fifteen resistance-trained males performed LL (4 × 3 at 20% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]), ISO (4 × 3 seconds), and control (CON) activities (standardized warm-up) in a randomized and counterbalanced order. Countermovement jump (CMJ) and isometric midthigh pull tests were conducted to assess performance changes after priming and CON activities. No clear changes in CMJ measures were found after priming activities compared with CON. However, small effect size improvements were found after priming stimuli completed on the same day. A 2.9% decrease in concentric phase duration (CI = 0.3-5.9, p = 0.333, Cliff's delta = -0.156) and a 9.1% increase in RSImod (CI = 0.2-12.3, p = 0.151, Cliff's delta = -0.218) occurred at 3 hours after LL compared with CON. Braking phase duration (CI = 0.8-10.6, p = 0.333, Cliff's delta = -0.213) was 2.9% shorter at 3 hours after ISO compared with CON. No clear changes in isometric peak force occurred after priming activities compared with CON. Additionally, questionnaires were completed to assess perceptual state and perceived effectiveness of the priming stimulus to influence performance. An increase in the "effect of activity" was perceived at 3 hours after LL and ISO (p = 0.013-0.044, Cliff's delta = 0.578-0.6) and at 27 hours after ISO (p = 0.99, Cliff's delta = 0.173) compared with CON. An increase in "muscular heaviness" was also reported at 3 hours after ISO compared with CON (p = 0.199, Cliff's delta = 0.320). The collective findings suggest limited benefits over the day after LL and ISO priming stimuli. However, as there was substantial variation in individual responses, the relative nature of priming responses should be considered when prescribing similar strategies in practical environments.

Effect of Supervised and Unsupervised Exercise Training in Outdoor Gym on the Lifestyle of Elderly People.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of supervised and unsupervised physical training programs using outdoor gym equipment on the lifestyles of elderly people. METHODS: physically independent elderly people were randomly distributed into three groups: supervised training (n: 20; ST), unsupervised training (n: 20; UT) and control (n: 20; C). The ST and UT groups completed a 12-week program, with exercises performed three times a week. The ST group underwent weekly 30 min sessions consisting of a 5 min warm-up (walking at 60% of HRmax), followed by 20 sets of 30, "monitored by a metronome with 30" of passive recovery between sets and a five-minute cool-down. The following equipment was used: elliptical, rowing, surfing and leg press. The UT group was instructed to freely attend the gym and train spontaneously using the same equipment used by ST. Lifestyle changes were evaluated using a questionnaire containing specific domains. RESULTS: no significant differences were identified in the domains for family, physical activity, nutrition, smoking, sleep, behavior, introspection, work and overall score; however, the values corresponding to the alcohol domain for the ST and UT groups were lower (p < 0.05) than the C group, remaining even lower after the 12 weeks of intervention. Time effect (p < 0.05) was found only in the ST group for the physical domains, sleep, behavior and overall score. CONCLUSION: elderly people submitted to supervised and unsupervised physical exercise programs using outdoor gym equipment present positive changes in lifestyle parameters compared to physical inactive elderly people.

Acute effects of unilateral and bilateral conditioning activity on countermovement jump, linear speed, and muscle stiffness: A randomized crossover study.

PURPOSE: Evidence directly comparing the effects of bilateral and unilateral conditioning activities is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the acute effect of unilateral and bilateral conditioning activity on vastus lateralis stiffness, countermovement jump parameters, and 10 m sprint. METHODS: Twelve semi-professional basketball players participated in this study (age: 23 ± 4 yrs; body mass: 84.7 ± 10.6 kg; body height: 192 ± 6 cm; basketball training experience: 11 ± 4 yrs) performed four experimental sessions to compare the acute effects of bilateral, stronger-only, weaker-only lower limb or no conditioning activity on vastus lateralis stiffness, countermovement jumps variables (height; peak velocity; peak force, contraction time, countermovement depth, and modified reactive strength index and 10 m sprint time. Measurements were performed 5 minutes before and in the 5th and 10th minutes after CA. RESULTS: Bilateral conditioning activity significantly increase the countermovement jump height (p = 0.002; ES = 0.71) and the reactive strength index modified (p = 0.010; ES = 0.59). Moreover, a significantly higher peak force in the stronger than in the weaker limb was found (p<0.001) without any differences between conditions and time points (p>0.05). However, there were no significant (p>0.05) interactions and effects of conditions or time-point in the case of the other countermovement jump variables, vastus lateralis stiffness, and 10m sprint time. CONCLUSION: Unilateral and bilateral drop jumps (3 sets of 5 repetitions) did not affect the vastus lateralis stiffness and time of the 10m sprint. However, only bilateral drop jumps effectively enhanced the countermovement jump height and modified reactive strength index. Bilateral drop jumps might be a useful part of a warm-up to improve jumping performance in basketball players.

[Management of muscle trauma in popular sports]. / Management des Muskeltraumas im Breitensport.

Muscle injuries make up the majority of injuries in popular sports. The causes for the development are multifactorial and can be divided into functional disorders and a lack of knowledge regarding training control. Insufficient warm-up and overtraining both increase the danger of the occurrence of the injury. Knowledge of the different types of muscle injuries and their incorporation into an exact classification enable the establishment of a correct treatment plan and can have a positive influence on the healing process. In addition to acute treatment the knowledge and application of preventive programs are necessary as these can significantly reduce the prevalence of muscle injuries in sports.

Sprint Resisted and Assisted Priming for Peak Performance.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztof, K, Aleksander, M, Adam, Z, and Krzysztofik, M. Sprint resisted and assisted priming for peak performance. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2354-2361, 2023-This study aimed to investigate resisted and assisted sprint, or a combination of both, as a conditioning activity (CA) on creatine kinase activity, biceps femoris stiffness, postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE), and priming in a sprint. Ten female sprinters (age: 20.1 ± 2.3 years, body mass: 56.4 ± 4.2 kg, body height: 171 ± 5 cm, training experience: 5.6 ± 2 years) participated. Before the warm-up, blood samples were drawn to determine creatine kinase at baseline. After the warm-up, biceps femoris stiffness was determined, and consequently, 50-m sprint time (with 0- to 20-m and 20- to50-m split time evaluation) was assessed 5 minutes before (pre-CA) and in the seventh minute after the completion of each CA (4 sets of 40 m either: 10% body mass resisted [RST]; 105% maximum velocity assisted [AST] sprint; or 2 sets of each sprint as the CA [COMB]), as well as after 48 hours of recovery. Furthermore, another blood sample was taken 48 hours later, before the warm-up, to assess changes in creatine kinase activity. A significantly higher 20-m sprint time at post-CA ( p = 0.006; ES = 0.4) and post-48 ( p = 0.011; ES = 0.59) compared with pre-CA in the RST condition was found, whereas a significantly lower sprint time was reported in post-48 compared with post-CA ( p = 0.019; ES = 0.44) in the COMB condition. However, a significantly lower 30-m flying sprint time at post-CA ( p < 0.001; ES = 0.28) and at post-48 ( p = 0.014; ES = 0.22) compared with pre-CA in the RST condition was revealed. Moreover, a significantly lower 30-m flying sprint time at post-48 compared with the pre-CA ( p = 0.007; ES = 0.7 and p = 0.003; ES = 0.77) and with the post-CA ( p = 0.019; ES = 0.61 and p = 0.009; ES = 0.68) in the AST condition and COMB was reported. Furthermore, a significantly lower 50-m sprint time at post-48 compared with pre-CA ( p = 0.015; ES = 0.51 and p = 0.011; ES = 0.64) and with post-CA ( p = 0.005; ES = 0.46 and p = 0.001; ES = 0.55) in the AST and COMB condition were found. The creatine kinase activity at post-48 during AST was significantly lower than during RST ( p = 0.028; ES = 0.73) and COMB ( p = 0.028; ES = 1.48). No significant changes were found for biceps femoris stiffness ( p = 0.085; η 2 = 0.199). The COMB and AST contributed to the improvement of the 50-m sprint time 48 hours after activation, which may be a good precompetition approach. However, during training sessions aiming to induce an acute PAPE effect and improve the 30-m flying sprint time, the best solution might be to use low-volume-resisted sprints.

Ischemic Preconditioning, But Not Priming Exercise, Improves Exercise Performance in Trained Rock Climbers.

ABSTRACT: MacDougall, KB, McClean, ZJ, MacIntosh, BR, Fletcher, JR, and Aboodarda, SJ. Ischemic preconditioning, but not priming exercise, improves exercise performance in trained rock climbers. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2149-2157, 2023-To assess the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and priming exercise on exercise tolerance and performance fatigability in a rock climbing-specific task, 12 rock climbers completed familiarization and baseline tests, and constant-load hangboarding tests (including 7 seconds on and 3 seconds off at an intensity estimated to be sustained for approximately 5 minutes) under 3 conditions: (a) standardized warm-up (CON), (b) IPC, or (c) a priming warm-up (PRIME). Neuromuscular responses were assessed using the interpolated twitch technique, including maximum isometric voluntary contraction (MVC) of the finger flexors and median nerve stimulation, at baseline and after the performance trial. Muscle oxygenation was measured continuously using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) across exercise. Time to task failure (T lim ) for IPC (316.4 ± 83.1 seconds) was significantly greater than CON (263.6 ± 69.2 seconds) ( p = 0.028), whereas there was no difference between CON and PRIME (258.9 ± 101.8 seconds). At task failure, there were no differences in MVC, single twitch force, or voluntary activation across conditions; however, recovery of MVC and single twitch force after the performance trial was delayed for IPC and PRIME compared with CON ( p < 0.05). Despite differences in T lim , there were no differences in any of the NIRS variables assessed. Overall, despite exercise tolerance being improved by an average of 20.0% after IPC, there were no differences in neuromuscular responses at task failure, which is in line with the notion of a critical threshold of peripheral fatigue. These results indicate that IPC may be a promising precompetition strategy for rock climbers, although further research is warranted to elucidate its mechanism of action.

The effect of three different pre-match warm-up structures on male professional soccer players' physical fitness.

Background: Optimizing the soccer players' match preparation is one of the most relevant concerns of coaches for strength and conditioning training. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of three pre-match warm-up structures on the physical condition of male professional soccer players. Materials & Methods: Seventeen male professional soccer players (age: 20.9 ± 2.4 years) of one Tunisian Professional Soccer League team participated in this study. Players performed three times a typical pre-match warm-up (WU) [aerobic phase (AE); neuromuscular phase (NM); velocity phase (VL); and ball-specific phase (BS) variating the order of the included phases/exercises: WU1 (AE + BS + NM + VL); WU2 (AE + NM + VL + BS); and WU3 (AE + VL + BS + NM). After each warm-up phase, players completed the following physical fitness tests: linear sprint test, countermovement jump test, 15-m ball dribbling agility test and ball shooting test. Additionally, the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was registered after each warm-up. Results: The results indicated significant differences between WU1 and WU3, with better results in the ball shooting test and RPE in WU3. In addition, there were no significant differences in the other variables and between other warm-up structures. These findings could be of great interest for coaches to the strength and conditioning coaches for professional soccer teams in order to improve the players physical performance and perceived exertion.

Beyond athletic development: The effects of parkour-based versus conventional neuromuscular exercises in pre-adolescent basketball players.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a parkour-based warm-up to a conventional neuromuscular training (NMT) warm-up on the athletic capabilities of youth basketball players. This was examined through two arms: In Investigation 1, the aims were to measure the effects of the two warm-ups on physical measures of athletic performance in prepubescent basketball players. Using post-intervention semi-structured interviews, Investigation 2 aimed to gain insights from the players in relation to the perceived benefits of the two warm-ups. Pre-adolescent children were recruited from two youth level basketball teams. Participants from one club were randomly assigned to either a conventional NMT warm-up group or a parkour warm-up group, while a control group was formed of participants from the second club. Participants of both experimental groups were required to complete a 15-minute warm-up once per week before their regular basketball practice across 8-weeks. For both groups, the coach adopted the same pedagogical approach, utilising a guided discovery strategy. Pre-post test measures of overhead squat performance, countermovement jump, and 10-metre sprint speed were recorded in all three groups. Additionally, pre-post measures were recorded for a timed parkour-based obstacle course for the two experimental groups. No significant between-group differences were found between pre- and post-test measures. However, analysis using Cohen's d effect sizes revealed improvements in both intervention groups versus the control. Moreover, between group effect size differences were observed between the two experimental groups. Following the intervention, participants from both experimental groups were also invited to take part in a post-intervention semi-structured interview to discuss their experiences. The thematic analysis of these semi-structured interviews revealed three higher order themes: Enjoyment; Physical literacy; and Docility; of which the two former themes appear to align to constructs relating to the wider concept of physical literacy. In summary, warm-ups designed to improve athleticism can include less structured and more diverse movement skills than are typical of conventional NMT warm-ups. Specifically, we provide evidence that advocates for warm ups that include parkour-related activities alongside conventional NMT exercises to preserve physical fitness qualities and to simultaneously evoke a sense of enjoyment, fun, and purpose. The benefit of such activities may extend beyond athletic development and, more broadly, contribute to the development of physical literacy.

Are Acute Effects of Foam-Rolling Attributed to Dynamic Warm Up Effects? A Comparative Study.

Over the last decade, acute increases in range of motion (ROM) in response to foam rolling (FR) have been frequently reported. Compared to stretching, FR-induced ROM increases were not typically accompanied by a performance (e.g., force, power, endurance) deficit. Consequently, the inclusion of FR in warm-up routines was frequently recommended, especially since literature pointed out non-local ROM increases after FR. However, to attribute ROM increases to FR it must be ensured that such adaptations do not occur as a result of simple warm-up effects, as significant increases in ROM can also be assumed as a result of active warm-up routines. To answer this research question, 20 participants were recruited using a cross-over design. They performed 4x45 seconds hamstrings rolling under two conditions; FR, and sham rolling (SR) using a roller board to imitate the foam rolling movement without the pressure of the foam rolling. They were also tested in a control condition. Effects on ROM were tested under passive, active dynamic as well as ballistic conditions. Moreover, to examine non-local effects the knee to wall test (KtW) was used. Results showed that both interventions provided significant, moderate to large magnitude increases in passive hamstrings ROM and KtW respectively, compared to the control condition (p = 0.007-0.041, d = 0.62-0.77 and p = 0.002-0.006, d = 0.79-0.88, respectively). However, the ROM increases were not significantly different between the FR and the SR condition (p = 0.801, d = 0.156 and p = 0.933, d = 0.09, respectively). No significant changes could be obtained under the active dynamic (p = 0.65) while there was a significant decrease in the ballistic testing condition with a time effect (p < 0.001). Thus, it can be assumed that potential acute increases in ROM cannot be exclusively attributed to FR. It is therefore speculated that warm up effects could be responsible independent of FR or imitating the rolling movement, which indicates there is no additive effect of FR or SR to the dynamic or ballistic range of motion.

Effects of High-Intensity Warm-Up on 5000-Meter Performance Time in Trained Long-Distance Runners.

Warm-up protocols with high intensities before continuous running provide potential benefits for middle-distance runners. Nevertheless, the effect of high-intensity warm-ups on long-distance runners remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to verify the effect of a high-intensity warm-up protocol on 5000 m performance in trained runners. Thirteen male runners (34 ± 10 years, 62 ± 6 kg, 62.7 ± 5.5 ml/kg/min) performed two 5000 m time trials, preceded by two different warm-ups. One high-intensity warm up (HIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (100% of the running intensity) and one low-intensity warm up (LIWU: 1x 500 m (70% of the running intensity) + 3x 250 m (70% of the running intensity)), where the running intensities were calculated using the results obtained in the Cooper test. Physiological and metabolic responses, and endurance running performance parameters, were evaluated by the Counter Movement Jump (CMJ), running rating of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate concentration (BLa), and performance running. Total time for the 5000 m was lower using HIWU when compared to LIWU (1141.4 ± 110.4 s vs. 1147.8 ± 111.0 s; p = 0.03; Hedges' g = 0.66). The HIWU warm-up led to an improvement in pacing strategy during the time trial. After warm-up protocols, the performance on the CMJ was improved only when applying HIWU (p = 0.008). Post warm-up BLa was significantly higher for HIWU vs. LIWU (3.5 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1 vs. 2.3 ± 1.0 mmol·L-1; p = 0.02), with similar behavior for the RPE (p = 0.002), internal load of the session (p = 0.03). The study showed that a high-intensity warm-up protocol can improve performance in the 5000 m in trained endurance runners.

Effects of whole-body vibration warm-up on subsequent jumping and running performance.

The aim of this study was to examine whether acute whole-body vibration, a single bout of drop jumps, or a combination of both may enhance countermovement jump (CMJ) and would affect volitional pace 3 km running performance. Twelve healthy and recreationally active males completed 4 conditions in randomized order: (i) 5 sets of 30 s calf raises on the platform but without vibration; (ii) 5 sets of 30 s calf raises on the vibration platform with 30 s rest intervals between sets; (iii) 5 sets of 6 drop jump with a 30 s rest interval between sets; (iv) 5 sets of 30 s calf raises on the vibration platform followed by 6 drop jumps with a 30 s rest interval between sets. Before, 3-min after, and immediately after a 3 km run each participant performed CMJ. No significant difference between conditions (p = 0.327) for the 3 km time trial was found. Whereas CMJ height and relative peak power were significantly improved in post-3 km run than at baseline (p < 0.001 and p = 0.025) and post-warm-up (p = 0.001 and p = 0.002) in all conditions. The present study indicates that warm-up consisting of either whole-body vibration, drop jumps, or a combination of both failed to acutely improve CMJ and 3 km volitional pace running performance in physically active males. However, the increase in the CMJ performance was noted after the end of the 3 km run, which may indicate that the warm-up protocols used were insufficient to enhance subsequent performance.

Postactivation Potentiation for Muay Thai Kicking Performance.

ABSTRACT: Brown, L, Doyle, G, Bruce-Low, S, Domingos, S, Anthony, K, Rowan, F, and Galbraith, A. Postactivation potentiation for Muay Thai kicking performance. J Strength Cond Res 37(10): 2032-2037, 2023-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of postactivation potentiation (PAP) on Muay Thai kicking performance based on 3 different rest intervals. Aiming to quantify and indicate timing protocols for conditioning coaches when training athletes using PAP. 17 male (25.3 ± 3.6 years old; 179.3 ± 2.3 cm; 78.0 ± 5.2 kg), experienced Muay Thai fighters completed a standardized warm-up, including a 10-minute cycle on the Wattbike at 60 watts and 30 body mass squats for a dynamic stretch. Subjects then completed a baseline test by striking a PowerKube using the roundhouse and Teep kick techniques. PAP exercise consisted of 4 squat repetitions to maximum effort, followed by a rest period of 2, 5, or 8 minutes. Subjects then struck the PowerKube again using the roundhouse and Teep kick techniques. Rest periods were presented in a randomized order on separate days, with 72 hours between conditions. The level of significance was set at α = 0.05. Significant increases in both roundhouse (χ 2 (3) = 38.51, p < 0.05) and Teep kick (χ 2 (3) = 26.33, p < 0.05) striking power were observed when compared with baseline. For the roundhouse kick, significant differences and large effect sizes were present between all conditions except baseline and 2-minute rest. For the Teep kick, significant differences and large effect sizes were present between baseline and 5-minute rest and baseline and 8-minute rest. This indicates that PAP with 5- or 8-minute rest increased roundhouse and Teep kick power. This research reports that a PAP stimulus from a 4RM squat exercise, followed by a 5- or 8-minute rest period, enhances kick power in trained Muay Thai fighters. This technique provides a readily available, time-efficient method to enhance performance that can be built into the warm-up procedure of athletes before training or competition.